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• Forum - Classroom Environment: Educator Viewpoints

Our goal at this site is to provide research information (selected articles) and Forums (submitted suggestions/opinions) to help educators improve their classroom environment and teaching methods. We are asking teachers/administrators to share their successful techniques and submit them here so others can benefit. We are particularly interested in hearing about innovative/creative approaches that improve the classroom learning environment. Please fill out our Educators' Form and submit your suggestions/opinions to us. Selected responses will be listed at "Forum - Classroom Environment: Educator Viewpoints".

This is an international forum and we hope to receive excellent suggestions from all countries and cultures. Also, if you have any ideas/comments regarding this site, please send them to us. Contact us at learning@infomedsearch.com.

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Oppositional Defiant Disorders

NIH - Medical Encyclopedia Oppositional Defiant Disorder

"Oppositional defiant disorder is a pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behavior toward authority figures. To fit this diagnosis, the pattern must persist for at least 6 months and must go beyond the bounds of normal childhood misbehavior.

Symptoms: • Arguing with adults • Loss of temper • Angry and resentful of others • Actively defies adults' requests • Spiteful or vindictive behavior • Blames others for own mistakes • Is touchy or easily annoyed • Few or no friends or loss of previous friends • Constant trouble in school ...

Possible Complications: In a significant proportion of cases, the adult condition of conduct disorder can be traced back to the presence of oppositional defiant disorder in childhood ...

Prevention: Consistency in rules and fair consequences should be practiced in the child's home. Punishments should not be overly harsh or inconsistently applied. Appropriate behaviors should be modeled by the adults in the household. Abuse and neglect increase the chances that this condition will occur. "

Highlighted Articles

Oppositional defiant disorder. (Aust Fam Physician. 2008) “DISCUSSION: Many of the behaviours required to meet this diagnosis are not uncommon in the preschool child or adolescent. However, in children with ODD the behaviours are persistent, cause significant distress to the family system, and impact on the child's social and educational functioning. Oppositional defiant disorder usually presents in the preschool years, although it may become evident during adolescence. There is strong evidence that early intervention to increase positive factors in family relationships and to increase both the parents' and child's skill levels can assist in the prevention of more serious disorders and mental health issues.”

Lifetime prevalence, correlates, and persistence of oppositional defiant disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. (J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007) "Results: Lifetime prevalence of ODD is estimated to be 10.2% (males = 11.2%; females = 9.2%). Of those with lifetime ODD, 92.4% meet criteria for at least one other lifetime DSM-IV disorder, including: mood (45.8%), anxiety (62.3%), impulse-control (68.2%), and substance use (47.2%) disorders. ODD is temporally primary in the vast majority of cases for most comorbid disorders. Both active and remitted ODD significantly predict subsequent onset of secondary disorders even after controlling for comorbid conduct disorder (CD). Early onset (before age 8) and comorbidity predict slow speed of recovery of ODD. Conclusions: ODD is a common child- and adolescent-onset disorder associated with substantial risk of secondary mood, anxiety, impulse-control, and substance use disorders. These results support the study of ODD as a distinct disorder."

Conduct Disorders

NIH - Medical Encyclopedia Conduct Disorder

"Conduct disorder, a disorder of childhood and adolescence, involves chronic behavior problems, such as defiant, impulsive, or antisocial behavior; drug use; or criminal activity.

Causes: Conduct disorder has been associated with family conflicts, child abuse, poverty, genetic defects, and parental drug addiction or alcoholism. The diagnosis is more common among boys and is estimated to be as high as 10%. However, because many of the qualities necessary to make the diagnosis (such as "defiance" and "rule breaking") can be subjective, it is hard to know how common the disorder really is. For accurate diagnosis, the behavior must be far more extreme than simple adolescent rebellion or boyish exuberance. Conduct disorder is often associated with attention-deficit disorder, and the two together carry a major risk for alcohol and/or other drug dependence. Children with conduct disorder tend to be impulsive, difficult to control, and unconcerned about the feelings of others ...

Symptoms: Cruel or aggressive behavior toward people and animals • Destruction of property, including fire setting • Lying, truancy, running away • Vandalism, theft • Heavy drinking and/or heavy illicit drug use • Breaking rules without apparent reason • Antisocial behaviors, such as bullying and fighting ...

Possible Complications: Children with conduct disorder may go on to develop personality disorders as adults, particularly antisocial personality disorder. As their behaviors worsen, these individuals may also develop significant drug and legal problems.

When to Contact a Medical Professional: See your health care provider if your child seems to be overly aggressive, is bullying others, is being victimized, or continually gets in trouble. Early treatment may help."

Highlighted Articles

A 30-Year Prospective Follow-up Study of Hyperactive Boys With Conduct Problems: Adult Criminality. (J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007)

"CONCLUSIONS: Hyperactive/ADHD boys with conduct problems are at increased risk for adult criminality. Hyperactive boys without childhood conduct problems are not at increased risk for later criminality. An intensive 3-year MMT treatment of 6- to 12-year-old hyperactive boys is insufficient to prevent later adult criminality."

From conduct disorder to severe mental illness: associations with aggressive behaviour, crime and victimization. (Psychol Med. 2007)

"CONCLUSIONS: Men and women with severe mental illness who have a history of CD by mid-adolescence are at increased risk for aggressive behaviour and violent crime. These patients are easily identifiable and may benefit from learning-based treatments aimed at reducing antisocial behaviour. Longitudinal, prospective investigations are needed to understand why CD is more common among people with than without schizophrenia."

CONTINUE YOUR INFOMEDSEARCH RESEARCH with our previous InfoMedLinks. Start with InfoMedLinks 2007.

Health - Environment and Learning

Classroom Environment

NEWS:

Class Size Alone Not Enough To Close Academic Achievement Gap “A Northwestern University study investigating the effects of class size on the achievement gap between high and low academic achievers suggests that high achievers benefit more from small classes than low achievers, especially at the kindergarten and first grade levels.”

Troubled Children Hurt Peers' Test Scores, Behavior “Not only did children from troubled homes suffer, however: Test scores fell and behavior problems increased for their classmates as well. Troubled boys caused the bulk of the disruption, and the largest effects were on other boys. Indeed, Carrell and Hoekstra estimate that adding just one troubled boy to a class of 20 children reduces the standardized reading and math scores of other boys in the room by nearly two percentile points. And adding just one troubled boy to a class of 20 students increases the likelihood that another boy in the class will commit a disciplinary infraction by 17 percent. “

ARTICLES:

A Learning Environment “Setting up a learning environment that maximizes learning for students with learning difficulties is every bit as essential as intervening appropriately and at the appropriate times. ALWAYS remember that children with learning difficulties rarely learn in the traditional manner. Vary your strategies until you find out what works, persistence will pay off. In the front of your mind, remind yourself that having learning difficulties is like trying to learn a completely foreign language. Ignore and avoid the labels - your main focus is on effective interventions. … Sometimes these students benefit from soft music playing as they work, do you have a set of headphones and a player? If so, try some soft music while the child is engaged in seatwork. … Avoid abstract concepts. Use concrete manipulatives on a regular basis, once the student fully understands, you can move to the abstract. Whenever possible, keep learning focused on the child's interests. Avoid drill and repetition, students need to be motivated and excited about learning, the quickest way to turn them off is through drill and repetition. Use games for this type of learning. Think of ways to keep learning project based, this is much more motivating for the learning disabled child. Last but not least - avoid telling the student to try harder. Although it may not seem so, the child is often trying his/her hardest.”

A Study of Two Urban Middle Schools: Discipline Practices Used to Control Disruptive Behavior of Students (Dissertation 20007) “In general, urban schools across the nation rely on suspensions, loss of privileges, reprimands, and or expulsion as means of discipline. Unfortunately, these reactive consequences only help a small number of children learn to “comply with general expectations” and are insufficient for many students who exhibit more challenging behavior problems.”

annotated review of "The Key to Classroom Management"“Marzano and Marzano (2003) attribute positive teacher-student relationships as “the keystone for all other aspects of classroom management” (p. 7). When positive teacher-student relationships are in place, student achievement increases and there are fewer discipline problems and rule violations in the classroom. Such relationships are characterized by three specific teacher behavior components, which when implemented correctly, result in effective classroom management. These teacher behavior components are: “exhibiting appropriate levels of dominance; exhibiting appropriate levels of cooperation; and being aware of high-needs students”. The first thing teachers must do in a classroom is demonstrate appropriate levels of dominance. Dominance is defined and implemented into the classroom by way of establishing clear expectations for behavior and academics, establishing learning goals, and using assertive behavior towards students. … The second teacher behavior component that establishes positive teacher-student relationships and leads to effective classroom management is exhibiting appropriate levels of cooperation to get the students and teachers working as a team. Providing flexible learning goals, taking personal interest in students, communicating care and support to students, and using positive classroom behaviors are key concepts in facilitating cooperation. … The last component towards effective classroom management is the awareness of high-needs students. This targets all students, such as those with diverse learning styles, culture and language, and special needs. This section is especially helpful to note because of the diversity in classrooms today. Marzano and Marzano outline five categories of high-needs students (passive, aggressive, attention problems, perfectionist, and socially inept) by definition, characteristics, and suggestions of classroom strategies for each type. In conclusion, I would strongly recommend this article for future teachers and all teachers. Effective classroom management is key to creating a classroom environment where students feel valued and can learn to their full potential.”

Enough about You, Let's Talk about Me: Student Voice in the Classroom “Many middle school students claim that their voices are ignored in the classroom, where the attitude is too often that the teacher holds the one right answer. Instead of this approach, teachers may wish to use the Socratic Seminar, which prompts students to examine issues and ideas through dialogue and actively involves and motivates them, giving them a voice in the classroom and vesting them in the learning process. Here, the author discusses the common elements of Socratic Seminars and outlines some of the benefits students derive from this method: increased attention, a safe learning environment, and a higher level of confidence.”

Teachers as Caring Classroom Leaders: A Case Study of Practices that Encourage the Hearts of Students “Perhaps it is not then surprising that participating teachers and students in Water’s Edge Middle School most often recounted stories about seventh grade teachers setting clear behavioral standards and holding students accountable for meeting those expectations. Having high expectations for and supporting middle school students in developing self-control, personal responsibility, and other prosocial behaviors have been found to lead to improvements in academic performance and school related attitudes (Battistich, 2001; Zins et al., 2004). It seems the teachers in the study presented here understood this. Importantly, Water’s Edge Middle School teachers and the students also reported that the seventh grade teachers supported students in meeting the standards they set by providing students with extra assistance, motivating them, and holding them accountable. These findings support those of researchers such as Corbett and Wilson (1999) who found that students identified teachers as the main factor in determining how much they learned. The teachers that stood out for the students in that study were willing to help them whenever and however the students wanted them to. Similarly, Mansfield (2001) demonstrated how students’ perceived levels of teacher caring and support can influence their motivation and have a significant effect on academic engagement and outcomes.”

The Caring Teacher: Tips to Motivate Student Learning (Rowman & Littlefield Education (Book) 2008) “The most successful educators know that there are two components to teaching: the academic side and the human side. Contrary to what most people think, the human aspect of teaching is by far the most difficult to achieve. Teachers are expected to relate to and educate a wide range of personalities, levels of maturity, and emotions. It is very difficult, perhaps even impossible, to achieve the potential that lies within both the teacher and the student without caring. All teaching methods, techniques, and motivations are a waste of time without the human component. By incorporating the human element, teachers find the solution to classroom tensions. In creating an atmosphere of caring and sharing, the teacher allows the relationship between student and teacher to become loving rather than adversarial.”

The Four Cs of Successful Classroom Management: The Music Educator's Job Is Easier if the Classroom Offers a Positive and Challenging Environment “The four Cs of classroom management--commendation, communication, consistency, and content--represent one of the quickest and most successful ways to establish a safe, healthful, and fun environment at any level, especially in elementary schools. Using the four Cs helps establish an efficient, supportive, and safe environment to nurture positive experiences in music learning. Students can learn to evaluate musical ideas, think creatively, and solve problems. Most music teachers agree that consistent routines and procedures, student-teacher connection, and clear, open lines of communication at all levels are important parts of successful management for early-career teachers. The same is true for experienced teachers.”

JOURNAL ARTICLES:

Classroom Climate, Rigorous Instruction and Curriculum, and Students' Interactions in Urban Middle Schools (The Elementary School Journal 2008) “Results indicated that the degree of respect that teachers showed students significantly predicted students' behavior toward one another. The presence of explicit rules in the classroom for respectful, prosocial behavior also significantly predicted the number of students who participated in discussions. Further, the quality of students' participation in class discussions—that is, the degree to which they built on other students' contributions and explained and supported their responses—was predicted by teachers pressing students to explain their thinking in discussions and by the rigor of the questions posed to students in the discussion.”

Do Teachers Bully Students?: Findings from a Survey of Students in an Alternative Education Setting (Education and Urban Society 2008) “Students need a strong, positive relationship with caring adults in school. Although the vast majority of adults in authority interact respectfully with students, some adults physically and psychologically bully students. This article examines the extent to which 50 alternative education students reported being victimized by teachers or other adults during their school career. Of respondents, 86% reported at least one incident of adult physical maltreatment in school and 88% reported at least one incident of adult psychological maltreatment in school. Almost twice as many students reported that an adult, rather than a peer, was involved in their worst school experience (64.4%), with several students indicating that their worst school experience involved being physically mistreated by an adult; half reported being upset by the experience "a lot." These findings indicate that students are being bullied by teachers to a surprising degree and in a wide range of destructive and harmful ways.”

Effects of Teacher Greetings on Student On-Task Behavior (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2007) “A multiple baseline design across participants was used to determine how teacher greetings affected on-task behavior of 3 middle school students with problem behaviors. Momentary time sampling was used to measure on-task behavior during the first 10 min of class. Teacher greetings produced increases in students' on-task behavior from a mean of 45% in baseline to a mean of 72% during the intervention phase. Teacher greetings represent an antecedent manipulation that can easily be implemented in classrooms to improve students' on-task behavior.”

Emotional Abuse in the Classroom: Implications and Interventions for Counselors (Journal of Counseling & Development 2008) “Emotional abuse of students by teachers is a topic infrequently discussed in the child abuse literature. In some classrooms, it can be a daily occurrence. This article defines emotional abuse and discusses the types of classroom behaviors teachers may demonstrate that are emotionally abusive to students. The role of school-based counselors in the prevention and treatment of emotional abuse is discussed.”

Examining the Influence of Teacher Behavior and Classroom Context on the Behavioral and Academic Outcomes for Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders (The Journal of Special Education 2008) “Some studies point to the influence of students’ behavior on their learning problems, whereas others point to the influence of students’ learning problems on their behavior. For example, after statistically controlling for differences in prior achievement, Chen, Rubin, and Li (1997) found that fourth-grade students who were aggressive and disruptive displayed lower academic achievement in sixth grade than did fourth-grade students who were not displaying these behaviors. Similarly, Masten et al. (1995) found that problem behavior in late childhood predicted academic achievement in late adolescence. On the other hand, Jorm, Share, Matthews, and Maclean (1986) found that children with reading problems were more likely to demonstrate antisocial behavior than were students without reading problems by the end of Grade 1 and in Grade 2, even though there were no differences in antisocial behavior between children with and without reading problems in kindergarten. McGee,Williams, Share, Anderson, and Silva (1986) found that for students with reading problems, their frequency of problem behaviors increased more quickly between ages 5 and 9 than for students without reading problems. These studies are just a few examples of continued work in this area to predict patterns of influence between students’ learning and behavior problems. … An example of targeting only one level of the classroom context has been the tendency of researchers in EBD to focus on interventions to reduce problem behavior. Implicit in this approach is that by reducing problem behavior, students’ academic and social outcomes might improve. Although this assumption may have some merit, for many students with EBD simply reducing disruptive behavior might not result in a change in the one behavior that appears to be associated with learning and behavior problems: task engagement. Moreover, by ignoring the associated academic problems often concurrent with problem behaviors, treatment efficacy has been further limited. The current state of research on teacher and context presented in this article points to the need for practitioners to target those behaviors most related to meeting the classroom’s learning demands (e.g., paying attention, staying organized, being flexible) in addition to specific academic skills if they are to best help children achieve academically. Thus, in terms of clarifying outcomes for students with EBD, reducing disruptive behavior may be less important to academic outcomes for students than are increasing task engagement and active responding.”

Humor in the Home and in the Classroom: The Benefits of Laughing While We Learn (Journal of Education and Human Development 2008) “Research shows that social and intellectual development among preadolescent children can be enhanced and enriched when the children are exposed to the regular, structured, appropriate use of humor by parents and teachers. Authority figures such as parents and teachers can use wit and humor to edify familial and/or educational relationships and encourage academic excellence by helping lay foundations for effective learning connections with children before they enter adolescence. This article explores the value and benefits of humor as a teaching tool at home and in the classroom and addresses appropriate and inappropriate uses of humor in these environments. … Although many adults remember at least one or two teachers from their school days they considered “funny” or “humorously entertaining”, organized use of humor approaches in the classroom is a relatively new concept in the field. While there have long been witty/funny teachers whose personalities has made them a hit with students, research-tested, curriculumbased humor strategies have not been explored in great depth. As recently as the 1990s, structured use of humor in elementary school and middle school classrooms was elusive at best, and flat out dissuaded by administrators at worst. During those early days of ‘failing schools’ hysteria, public attention to standardized test results and teacher accountability increased. One result of that trend was a general streamlining of teaching strategies. A teacher who might be working to infuse and support her curriculum and teaching style with humor, for instance, might be questioned about the legitimacy and time-effectiveness of such an approach. Due in large part to lingering skepticism and traditional perceptions on laughter in the classroom, teachers who endeavor to invigorate their lessons with structured use of humor may still have to account for their actions. Teachers who are familiar with the work and strategies of humor-in-the-classroom pioneers can make a valid argument for its inclusion. … Elaine Lundberg and Cheryl Miller have also inspired teachers for years with ideas for classroom humor. Their work, If They’re Laughing, They Just Might be Listening, focuses on sharing practical, in-class strategies such as the administration of silly awards for desired work or behavior and using grand exaggerations during a lesson (2002). … “In short,” they write, “learning and laughter go hand in hand, and always have. Every young child can readily demonstrate the capacity to thoroughly enjoy learning even the most mundane skills, such as washing windows or memorizing math tables. The explanation for this natural phenomenon is that kids bring unlimited playfulness and creativity to any task, transforming what might be a boring activity into one that is filled with quips, songs, goofiness, wonder, delight, and even awe.” (Loomans and Kolberg, 1993). … Teachers who plan instruction with these and similar humor strategies reap the benefits of unique connectivity and transform their classrooms into warm and inviting learning environments. Steve Allen, the noted comedian and host of The Tonight Show once wrote: “As I look back at the years of my formal education, sketchy as it was, I find that three teachers stand out in my recollection. What they all had in common was a good sense of humor. Whether they taught their subjects any better than their relatively humorless equivalents I don’t really know, but their geniality and their general good nature simply set a social context within which I felt comfortable. By way of contrast, I remember one instructor who, because she was a critical, sarcastic, and cold person, was able to teach me very little.”

Improving Homework Completion and Motivation of Middle School Students through Behavior Modification, Graphing, and Parent Communication (ERIC 2007) “During the teacher researchers’ review of the literature, numerous influences were revealed as to why homework completion and motivation is an area of frustration for teachers, parents, and students. These influences include poor student habits and study skills, lack of parental support and/or understanding, poor environment, parent complaints of schools and teachers, teacher concerns and lack of communication between home, school, and community, and finally the special education community of learners. Teacher researchers used parent and student surveys to document evidence of the problem. There were three interventions/strategies the teacher researchers used for this action research project. Homework charting/graphing was used for each class. The students graphed their homework completion with teacher supervision on a daily basis. A ticket/reward system was implemented in conjunction with the graphing/charting giving the students an opportunity to earn prizes/rewards for homework completion. The parents were apprised weekly of their child’s progress by receiving a home note on a weekly basis, outlining their child’s weekly progress, or lack thereof. The teacher researchers found the action research project to have both positive and negative results. Though student motivation increased at the beginning of the intervention, motivation seemed to decline by the end of the intervention. The teacher researchers believe this decline to be attributed to the intervention occurring toward the end of the school year. A lack of teacher consistency and enthusiasm toward the end of the intervention and a lack of parent consistency in responding to home notes were other factors believed to contribute to the lack of student motivation. The most positive feedback of the project came from parents. Parents responded positively to the consistent feedback concerning their child’s progress. Though the teacher researchers would change several areas of the interventions, the weekly parent communication would be an intervention they would continue and recommend.”

IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS THROUGH THE USE OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING “The purpose of this action research project is to improve student social skills through the use of cooperative learning, in order to develop a positive classroom environment that is conducive to learning. … It has been a common complaint among teachers, parents, and administrators that far too much valuable time in the classroom is consumed by disciplinary measures. The teacher researchers agree with research that has shown the need for disciplinary measures is the result of acquisition deficits (student does not know the skill), performance deficits (student knows how to perform the skill, but fails to do so), fluency deficits (student knows how to perform skill, but demonstrates inadequate performance), and internal/external factors (negative motivation or depression) (NASP, retrieved 2006). … Most teachers expect students to listen, follow directions, turn in assignments, and display selfcontrol. If students do not possess these skills, they are not likely to meet their teacher or classmate’s expectations. Therefore, it is necessary that teacher’s social and behavioral expectations are clear. These skills should be clearly and concisely taught and consistently enforced. Once these skills are mastered, students will benefit not only socially, but also academically while increasing available instructional time. According to an article from Kid Source Online: If we expect students to learn appropriate social skills we must structure the learning environment so that these skills can be addressed and practiced. We need to increase the opportunity for students to interact within the school environment so that pro-social skills can be learned. If all a student does is perform as a passive participant in the classroom, then little growth in social skill acquisition can be expected (Retrieved 2005). … According to a study conducted by the American Academy of Pediatrics, children who viewed excessive amounts of television were more prone to violence, laziness, and decreased imagination (Rainey, retrieved 2006). Unfortunately, the media consisted of too many role models with inappropriate social behavior for students to admire. … Various studies have shown that in order to teach social skills, it is essential for the person teaching the skill to model, role-play, and coach the desired behaviors. … The one consistency that all the researchers felt, was the need to implement appropriate social skill lessons within their curriculum. Overall, the action researchers have noted the importance of continuous reinforcement of appropriate social skills within their classrooms.”

Methods of Motivational Teaching (ERIC 2008) “As teachers, we want to motivate our students to learn during a unit and to continue learning about the topic after the unit ends. This article describes about a hundred methods we use to help motivate students to learn. The methods form 12 categories: (1) making content relevant to student values and goals; (2) helping students achieve their goals through learning; (3) providing potent models of learning; (4) prompting and persuading students to learn; (5) establishing a positive relationship with students; (6) rewarding student achievement and learning efforts; (7) not de-motivating students; (8) enhancing student learning self-efficacy; (9) using engaging teaching methods; (10) using an appealing teaching style; (11) giving motivational feedback; and (12) monitoring student motivation levels and adjusting motivation methods as needed. Teachers at any level of the educational system may be able to increase their motivational impact by using the methods that suit their personality, their topic, their students, and their setting.”

Preventing Disruptive Behavior in the Urban Classroom: Effects of the Good Behavior Game on Student and Teacher Behavior (Education and Treatment of Children 2007) “The dependent measures included student on-task and disruptive behaviors as well as teacher response statements. Student on-task behavior was defined as the student attending to the assigned work or teacher (i.e., having eyes oriented to work or teacher). On-task behavior included both active and passive forms (e.g., looking at teacher during lecture, writing answer to math worksheet). Student disruptive behavior was defined as any behavior that is not included in the on-task category such as academically unrelated verbal (e.g., call outs, talk to other students) or motoric (e.g., out-of-seat, throwing objects) behaviors. A broad category of disruptive behavior was chosen, so as to represent the host of behaviors that would typically elicit reprimands by a teacher during instruction or independent seatwork (e.g., staring around room, out-of-seat, tapping pencil, talking to a peer). … The results of the study suggest that the Game was effective in increasing student on-task behavior and reducing disruptive behavior. The results are consistent with previous findings suggesting that the Game is an effective intervention (Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf, 1969; Tankersley, 1995). A poignant remark made by the teacher reflected the strength of the intervention and attested to its social validity, "It was actually quiet in here for a couple minutes." Perhaps even more important than the replication of the Game's effects are the implications of using the Game with a young, inner city population of students. Researchers have repeatedly demonstrated the negative impact of poorly managed urban school environments [End Page 93] on the behavior of students at risk for aggression (Guerra, Huesmann, Tolan, Van Acker, & Eron, 1995; Van Acker & Talbott, 1999). In particular, the work of Kellam and his colleagues (Kellam et al., 1998) has provided evidence of a link between poorly managed first grade classrooms and the continuation of severe aggression and related academic problems in middle school among boys who were aggressive at school entry. Making matters worse, the link is stronger for boys coming from impoverished families. Clearly, effective classroom management is essential to the socialization of young urban students making it critical to continue to identify effective behavioral management practices that teachers can easily utilize. Classroom management is an important component of effective teaching. Just as important are academic activities incorporating such teaching practices as opportunities to respond and corrective feedback (Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002).”

Preventing conduct problems and improving school readiness: evaluation of the Incredible Years Teacher and Child Training Programs in high-risk schools (Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2008) “Results indicated that intervention teachers used more positive classroom management strategies and their students showed more social competence and emotional self-regulation and fewer conduct problems than control teachers and students. Intervention teachers reported more involvement with parents than control teachers.”

Prevention and Reduction of Behavioural Problems in School: An Evaluation of the Respect Program (Educational Psychology 2007)

Recent Research on Troublesome Classroom Behaviour: A Review (Australasian Journal of Special Education 2007 ) “Recent research confirms earlier findings that classroom misbehaviour is of widespread concern to teachers but that the main causes of disruption, while being frequent, are often relatively trivial in nature ('talking out of turn' behaviours in particular). While prevalence rates for troublesome students across classes are variable, boys are consistently identified as being more troublesome than girls.”

Redefining Classroom Culture through Instructional Design (Proceedings of the 1st International Malaysian Educational Technology Convention. 2007)

Teachers’ classroom discipline in Australia, China and Israel (Teaching and Teacher Education 2005) “Having argued why it is understandable for teachers to react to provocative and possibly confronting student behaviour by becoming more aggressive, this does not excuse such a response. It is recognised that “children who have significant emotional and behavioural problems respond less positively to others and this elicits fewer positive responses and more negative responses from others” (Pace et al, 1999: 151) However teachers are professionals who need to respond in the best interests of their clients, the students. As argued by Roeser et al (2000) “Teachers need to protect adolescents from situations they perceive as threatening to their self …or threatening to their social image” (p.454). If not, then “adolescents will feel less motivated to learn and more unhappy and will be more likely to manifest academic or social problems”(p.454). In summary, teachers can not allow themselves and difficult students to be locked into “a vicious cycle of reciprocal causation” (Pace et al, 1999:151). In making a recommendation that teachers need to work harder to foster quality relationships with difficult students, we are aware how difficult that may be. However a clear starting point would be to minimize the usage of aggressive disciplinary techniques while increasing the frequency with which they recognize responsible behaviour, however rare it may be. Secondly they need to make the opportunity let students talk about their side of things so that it can be clearly understood, to get them to understand why their behaviour is a problem for others and to obtain a plan for a better future. In many schools in Australia, Israel and China, this conversation is conducted by someone other than the classroom teacher, as a result of a ‘referral’. It is the year level coordinator (class teacher), school counsellor or a senior teacher who gets the advantage of the relationship power that arises from such conversations (Tauber, 1999), whereas it is the classroom teacher who needs it. Encouraging teachers to build rather than destroy good-will with students who are more provocative is a challenging request. It will not be easy. In the experience of one of the authors who is working in schools to achieve this aim it can take many years of persistent effort accompanied by considerable support (Lewis, 2001). If teachers are to act in the best interests of students in an area as emotive as classroom discipline, then "creating professional work environments where teachers feel supported by other professionals and school leaders in relation to their own needs for competence, autonomy, and quality relationships is essential”(Roeser et al, 2000:466)”

Teachers’ Use of Classroom Management Procedures in the United States and Greece: A Cross-Cultural Comparison (School Psychology International 2007) “The survey asked questions regarding teachers’ use of important classroom management principles (e.g. rules, classroom management practices). Responses of the teachers in the two samples were remarkably similar which indicates that, overall, teachers are reporting the use of empirically validated classroom management procedures (e.g. rules, positive reinforcement) in relatively high frequencies.”

The Challenges of Managing Student Behavior Problems in the Classroom (ERIC 2007) “The management of disruptive behavior problems is a familiar concern for many schools. In recent years, behavior difficulties in schools have increased, teachers seem to be unprepared to deal with the problem and the standard classroom management strategies teachers rely on does not appear to be working. According to C.E.C.P (1998), “Difficult student misbehaviors, reported by teachers included violation of classroom rules, being truant from school, blaming others for problems, irresponsible behavior, and destruction of property.” (p. 21). Displays of behavior problems and poor academic progress by children with severe behavior disorders, as well as difficult interactions with parents can place a tremendous demand on teachers. For instance, loss of control and time taken away from instruction to deal with behavior problems have a dramatic impact on a teacher’s job, self-esteem and job satisfaction (Jenson, Reavis & Rhode, 1998). … Traditionally, teachers have dealt with student behavior that interferes with classroom instruction by using various kinds of negative consequences (e.g., verbal reprimands, time-out, and suspension). The goal, of course, has been to reduce, if not eliminate the immediate problem (Geddes, 1997). However, Canter & Canter (1993) suggest that research outcomes show that negative consequences usually are not the most effective in eliminating problem behavior. "Reactive" approaches that follow inappropriate behavior, such as punishment, are not only time consuming, but they fail to teach the student acceptable replacement behaviors and also may serve to reinforce the inappropriate behavior. Jenson, Reavis and Rhode (1998) reiterated, “It is important that positive procedures be used with these difficult students because they usually have a history of punishment to which they have grown immune, they have a high risk for school dropout (estimated at 65%) and will not stay in a negative environment, and in the long run, permanent behavior changes are maintained only by basic positive procedures (p. 2). Bear (1998) looked at teachers’ resistance to behavioral techniques and attributed it, among other things, to lack of training or understanding and failure to implement strategies correctly. This may exacerbate teachers’ sense of inadequacy and frustration when dealing with difficult students. … Parenting: Many students who demonstrate behavior difficulties come from home environments that lack positive parenting, support and modeling. … punishment does not teach the student acceptable replacement behaviors and may reinforce inappropriate behaviors. Further, “Insubordination” was the most frequent reason teachers gave for referring students followed by “Disruption of school/class activity.” This is similar to the findings of previous researchers (Geiger, 2000, Tulley & Chi, 1995) who concluded that most of the discipline problems in schools are disruptive type rather than severe behavior problems. Results suggest the presence of less than positive classroom environment and student and teacher interaction. Research is conclusive that the approach to behavior management most likely to succeed is positive reinforcement and prevention, where the teacher thinks about, anticipates and plans for potential problems before they occur (Doyle, 1980). Unfortunately, Bear (1998) reviewed Brohy’s (1996) exemplary study on strategies for school discipline and concluded that positive approaches, such as praise, modeling, contracting, group contingencies, and social problem solving were much less common. … In-school restriction (ISR) was not an effective deterrent either. Despite strict guidelines and knowing that any infraction in ISR would result in suspension for one day, students continued to receive referrals. It appears that being removed from the classroom or the school may have served as escape, positive reinforcement, for students to continue to engage in behaviors that removed them from the classroom in the first place. … It was encouraging to note that the occurrences of behavior problems appeared to decrease for both special and regular education categories as students moved up in grades from 6th to 8th. Although many variables may account for this change, maturity may be one of them. … The anonymous African saying, “It takes a village to raise a child,” must be truly practiced. Adelman (1996) pointed out the importance of joining school and community resources for targeting behaviors related to school discipline. Mentoring appears to be one of the untapped community resources that could provide additional support staff from outside (Mayer, et al., 1983). Many more studies have shown the multiple benefits of mentoring, such as the development of emotional support and friendship, improved social network (Fishman et al., 1997), improved self-esteem and confidence (Utley et. al., 1997), increased set of knowledge and skills (Harper et al., 1995), and values such as honesty, sharing, and empathy could be modeled (Miller, 1997 cited in Barton-Atwood, 2000).”

The Use of Self-Management Skills with Kindergarten Through Third Grade Students with Emotional and Behavior Disorders: Investigation of Findings (ERIC 2007) “A review of the literature reveals that the use of self-management strategies increases the on-task behavior of students with emotional behavior disorders. A secondary effect of using these techniques was an increase in academic performance in reading and mathematics. In conclusion, teachers should be trained in teaching these strategies as a method to integrate students with emotional behavior disorders in the classroom. By teaching these methods both teachers and students may have a better academic experience in the classroom, as compared to typical unsuccessful experiences reported in the literature.”

You Can't Teach a Class You Can't Manage (ERIC 2008) “Donna Whyte presents specific strategies for addressing classroom management problems, and she doesn't shy away from tough issues such as bullying, lying, and stealing. Her focus is on an even greater challenge, teaching children the skills they need to control their own behavior. Whyte offers humor, perspective, and insight as she shares her own mistakes and successes, setting the stage for an abundance of proven strategies to teach self control, and appropriate behavior choices. This book includes strategies for teaching children how to: (1) solve their own problems; (2) identify and express feelings; (3) follow directions; (4) make decisions; (5) negotiate for what they want; and (6) get back on track after a bad choice.”

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